History of Translation

Introduction

Translation is one of the oldest human activities. From the moment different groups of people began speaking different languages, the need for translation was born. Translation is not only about converting words from one language into another but also about transferring culture, ideas, and values across time and space. The history of translation shows how societies have communicated, exchanged knowledge, and built connections between civilizations.

1. Translation in Ancient Civilizations

The earliest evidence of translation comes from Mesopotamia and Egypt. Clay tablets dating back to the second millennium BCE contain bilingual texts, which were used to teach and preserve languages.

Egypt: Religious texts like the Book of the Dead were translated into different dialects so more people could understand them.
Mesopotamia: Akkadian and Sumerian texts were translated to preserve law, trade agreements, and myths.
Hebrew Bible: Around the 3rd century BCE, Jewish scholars in Alexandria translated the Hebrew Scriptures into Greek. This version, called the Septuagint, is one of the most important early translations in world history because it allowed Greek-speaking communities to access Jewish religious traditions.

2. Translation in Classical Antiquity

In Greece and Rome, translation became an art form.

Greek Civilization: Greek scholars translated works from Egypt, Mesopotamia, and other regions. They believed translation was a way of preserving wisdom.
Roman Civilization: Romans translated Greek literature, philosophy, and science into Latin. Writers like Cicero and Horace discussed translation methods. Cicero preferred a “sense-for-sense” method, focusing on meaning instead of literal words. This debate between word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation began here and continues even today.

3. Translation in the Medieval Period

During the Middle Ages, translation became crucial for religion, education, and science.

Christianity: The Bible was translated into Latin by St. Jerome in the 4th century CE. His work, called the Vulgate, became the official version of the Catholic Church for centuries.
Islamic Golden Age (8th–13th century): Scholars in Baghdad translated Greek, Persian, and Indian texts into Arabic. This included works of philosophy, medicine, astronomy, and mathematics. Later, these Arabic texts were translated into Latin in Spain, bringing knowledge back to Europe.
Medieval Europe: Translation was central to education in monasteries. Many classical works survived only because they were translated into Latin and later into European vernacular languages.

4. Translation in the Renaissance and Early Modern Period

The Renaissance (14th–17th centuries) brought a revival of learning and translation.

Classical Greek and Roman texts were translated into modern European languages, spreading knowledge beyond scholars to the general population.
Printing technology made translations more accessible.
The Bible was translated into many local languages, such as Martin Luther’s German Bible (1522), which shaped both religion and language development in Europe.
Translators like Etienne Dolet in France and William Tyndale in England emphasized clarity, natural expression, and cultural adaptation.

5. Translation in the 18th and 19th Centuries

This period saw translation as part of national identity and literature.

Romanticism: Translators emphasized creativity, believing that translation should reflect the spirit and style of the original author.
Germany: Thinkers like Goethe and Schleiermacher shaped modern translation theory. Schleiermacher suggested two main methods:
1. Bringing the author to the reader (making it easy and natural).
2. Bringing the reader to the author (keeping foreign elements to preserve originality).
Colonial expansion also increased translation activities. European powers translated local texts to understand cultures, while colonized societies translated European works to modernize their education and literature.

6. Translation in the 20th Century

The 20th century was a turning point because of globalization, wars, and technology.

World Wars: Translation became essential in diplomacy, intelligence

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